Qualitative inorganic chemistry for A-level students
It involves use of observations and chemicals to identify in ions in a given compound usually identified by a letter such as K, P, Q and so on.
The trick is simple when you know the following basic information
Definitions
Cation is positively charged ion e.g. Pb2+, Zn2+, Cu2+ etc.
Anion is a negatively charged ion such SO42-, NO3–, Cl–, CO32- etc.
Syllabus
Knowing which ions you are expected to identify, helps you to focus your attention in a practical exams.
A sample compound in exam is expected to contain one or more of the
Cations: Zn2+, Pb2+, Al3+, Cu2+, Fe2+, Fe3+, Co2+, Mn2+, Ni2+, Cr3+, Ba2+, Ca2+, Mg2+ or NH4+
Anions: SO42–, Cl-, CO32-, NO3–, HCO3–, C2O42-, CH3COO–, I–, or Br–.
Reagents
It should be noted that there are reagents that test for cations and reagents that test for anion. It follows that deductions must correspond to these reagents. When a reagent that test for cation is used, do not include anions in the deductions and the vice versa. Only in the deductions boxes of “comment” “Heat” and/or “dissolve” can contain a MIXTURE of probable cations and anions (for the reasons to be explained later), elsewhere all deduction boxes should contain either probable cations or anions ONLY
The following reagents are only used to test for cations only; using these reagents and include any anion in the deduction box, make everything in the deductions box wrong since it will guess work. The concentration in brackets may be used.
- Dilute sodium hydroxide solution (4g in 100cm3)
- Dilute ammonia solution (10 cm3of concentrated ammonia in 100cm3)
- Dilute hydrochloric acid solution (10cm3of concentrated HCl in 100cm3)
- Potassium iodide solution (4g in 100cm3)
- Sodium carbonate solution (4g in 100cm3)
- Potassium hexacyanoferrate (II) solution (4g in 100cm3)
- Potassium hexacyanoferrate (III) solution (4g in 100cm3)
- Dimethyl glyoxime (dissolve 1g in 20cm3 of ethanol, add water to make 100cm3)
- Potassium thiocyanate (4g in 100cm3)
- Ammonium carbonate (4g in 100cm3)
- Potassium chromate (4g in 100cm3)
- Ammonium thiocyanate (4g in 100cm3)
The following reagents are used to test anions ONLY: using these reagents and include any cation in the deduction box, make everything in the deductions box wrong since it will guess work.
- Lime water (dissolve excess Ca(OH)2 powder and filter)
- Barium chloride/nitrate solution (2g in 100cm3)
- Silver nitrate solution (1g in 100cm3 protect the solution from light/use opaque container)
- Lead nitrate/ethanoate solution (4g in 100cm3)
- Litmus paper
Other qualitative reagent include
- Copper turning
- Hydrogen peroxide (4cm3 of hydrogen peroxide 20% to make 100cm3)
- Dilute Nitric acid solution (5cm3 of conc. HNO3 to 100 cm3 of solution)
- Dilute sulphuric acid (5cm3 of conc. HNO3 to 100 cm3 of solution)
- Ethanoic acid (1cm3 into 100cm3)
Implication of test procedures
- Comment
When required to comment on a compound you are expected to
- Tell the color the compound and this relates cations present i.e.
| Color of common compound | Cations that show the colors |
| Green | Ni2+, Cr3+, Fe2+, Cu2+ |
| Blue/Purple | Cu2+, Ni2+, Cr3+ |
| White/ colorless in solution | Pb2+, Zn2+ Al3+, NH4+, Ba2+, Ca2+, Mg2+ |
| Brown/orange/yellow/pink | Fe3+, Co2+, Mn2+, Cr6+ |
| Black/Purple | Cu2+, Cr3+, Mn7+, Mn4+ |
- Texture: this relates to anions, a compound can be
- Crystalline indication presence of SO42-, NO3–, or Cl–
Or
- Powder indicating presence of CO32-, oxide
Example the following are expected deduction for the observation
| Test | Observation | Deductions |
| Comment on the sample Q
Or
Or |
Green crystals | Ni2+, Cr3+, Fe2+,
SO42-, NO3–, or Cl– |
| White powder | Pb2+, Zn2+ Al3+, NH4+, Ba2+, Ca2+, Mg2+
CO32-, O2-/oxide |
|
| A mixture of blue crystal and white powder | Cu2+
SO42-, NO3–, or Cl– Pb2+, Zn2+ Al3+, NH4+, Ba2+, Ca2+, Mg2+ CO32-, O2-/oxide |
- Heat
On heating a compound the following observations (if any) occur in the order
| Test | Observation | Deductions |
| Heat a spatula endful of Q
|
– A liquid forms on the cool part of the test tube turn anhydrous copper Sulphate powder blue or anhydrous cobalt sulhate blue (use one of them not both to avoid wastage)
– A gas · That turns damp blue litmus paper red and forms white precipitate with lime water Or · That turns damp blue litmus paper red and bleach a litmus paper dipped in KMnO4 solution Or · Brown fume turn damp blue litmus paper red – Comment on the color of the residue (the deduction of the residue is made with reference to the initial of the compound as follows) |
– Hydrated compound
SO2; SO42- suspected
CO2; CO32-, HCO3– suspected
NO2, NO3– confirmed |
| Color of compound | Color of the residue
|
Suspected ions |
| Green | Yellow/brown | Fe2+ (being oxidized to brown Fe3+), or,
Cr3+ (being oxidized to yellow Cr6+) |
| Green | Black | Cu2+(CuCO3 is green but is converted to black CuO on heating) |
| White | Yellow/brown | Zn2+ or Pb2+(lead or zinc compound being decomposed to Oxide) |
| White | white | Al3+, Ba2+, Ca2+, Mg2+ |
- Dissolving in water (solubility relates to anions)
Soluble compound/solution usually contain: SO42-, Cl–, and NO3–,
Insoluble compound/residue contain CO32-
Note that a filtrate is a solution that goes through a filter paper and a residue is a solid that remains on a filter paper.
Example
| Test | Observation | Deductions |
| Dissolve a spatula endful of compound Q and filter | A green filtrate
White residue |
Solution: Ni2+, Cr3+, Fe2+, SO42-, NO3–, or Cl–
Residue: CO32-, Pb2+, Zn2+ Al3+, NH4+, Ba2+, Ca2+, Mg2+
|
- Testing ions in solution
- When testing for cations: the test reagents are used in order Sodium hydroxide solution; ammonia solution and finally a confirmatory test. A confirmatory test is a specific test for a cation in question. From the observation of sodium hydroxide and ammonia solution; the cations in the deduction box are suspected. When a confirmatory reagent is used, the word “confirmed” is required in the deduction box to show that you are sure of the cation in the compound.
- When testing anions: the test reagents are used in order lead nitrate solution and then a confirmatory reagent.
Note that : both SO42- and Cl– form white ppt. with lead nitrate; the pp. PbCl2 is soluble on heating while that of PbSO4 is insoluble on hating
Confirmatory test/ reagent
SO42- form a white ppt. which barium chloride/nitrate solution insoluble in nitric acid
Cl– form white ppt. insoluble in nitric acid solution soluble in excess ammonia.
CO32- carbonate ions are determined in the residue; they dissolve in an acid with effervescence giving of a gas that forms white ppt. with lime water.
Summary for chemical identification of Cations
The summary below shows reactions that can be used to identify cations that show close remembrance when reacted with bench reagents.
Group 1
This contains Zn2+, Pb2+ and Al3+
Compounds of these cations are usually white in color, and dissolve in water to give colorless solution. The main difference of this group with other white salts is that, they form gelatinous precipitates with sodium hydroxide soluble in excess. The various observations given by these cations with the various bench reagents are given the table below
| Test/reagent | Observations | ||
| Zn2+ | Pb2+ | Al3+ | |
| Color of the Common compounds | White | White | White |
| Color of the Common compounds | White | White | White |
| Color of solution for common compounds | Colorless | Colorless | Colorless |
| Sodium hydroxide added drop wise until in excess. | White gelatinous ppt.
|
White gelatinous ppt.
|
White gelatinous ppt.
|
| Ammonia solution added drop wise until in excess. | * White gelatinous ppt.
Soluble in excess |
White gelatinous ppt.
insoluble in excess |
White gelatinous ppt. insoluble in excess
|
| Sodium carbonate (Na2CO3) solution added drop wise until in excess and warm | White gelatinous ppt. insoluble in excess
|
White gelatinous ppt. insoluble in excess
|
*White gelatinous ppt. with effervescence, soluble excess or warming |
| Addition of a few drops of potassium iodide (KI) | No observable change | *Yellow ppt. formed
|
No observable change |
Group 2
The group contains Fe2+, Ni2+, and Cr3+ ions. The color of their salts is green.
Some of their distinguishing reactions are shown in the table below:
Table of test and observations
| Test/reagent | Fe2+ | Ni2+ | Cr3+ |
| Color of the Common compounds | Green
|
Green
|
Green/purple
|
| Color of solution for common compounds | Green
|
Green
|
Green/purple
|
| Sodium hydroxide added drop wise until in excess. | Dirty green gelatinous ppt. insoluble in excess | Grey/green ppt. insoluble in excess
|
* Grey/green ppt. soluble in excess
|
| Ammonia solution added drop wise until in excess.
|
Dirty green gelatinous ppt. insoluble in excess
|
* Grey/green gelatinous ppt.
Soluble in excess to give deep blue |
* White gelatinous ppt.
Insoluble in excess
|
| Sodium carbonate (Na2CO3) solution added drop wise until in excess and warm | Green gelatinous ppt. insoluble in excess
|
White gelatinous ppt. insoluble in excess
|
*White gelatinous ppt. with effervescence, soluble excess or warming |
Group 3
This contain only copper (II) ions
Note that Cu2+ may be considered with Group 2 ions because some of its compounds such a carbonate is green. But most of its compounds are blue. It reacts with some the bench reagents as follows:
| Test/reagent | Cu2+ |
| Color of the Common compounds and solution | Green/blue |
| Sodium hydroxide added drop wise until in excess. | A light blue ppt. Insoluble in excess |
| Ammonia solution added drop wise until in excess
|
* A blue gelatinous ppt.
Soluble in excess to give deep blue solution |
| A few drops Sodium carbonate (Na2CO3) solution and warm | Light blue gelatinous ppt., insoluble in excess |
| Addition of Potassium hexacyanoferrate II | A bloody red of brown ppt. |
| Addition of potassium iodide to the solution | * A white ppt with a yellow solution
2Cu2+ (aq) + 4I–(aq) → 2CuI (s) + I2 (aq) |
Group 4
This contains Fe3+, Co2+ and Mn2+
Compound of these cations are usually pink/brown / yellow in color, and dissolve in water to give yellow, brown or pink solution.
Table of test and observations
| Test/reagent
|
Fe3+
|
Co2+
|
Mn2+
|
| Color of the Common compounds and solution
|
Brown/yellow
|
Brown/pink
|
Brown/pink
|
| Sodium hydroxide added drop wise until in excess | Dirty brown gelatinous ppt. insoluble in excess
|
Blue ppt. insoluble in excess, turn pink on standing.
|
* White ppt. insoluble in excess, turns brown on standing |
| Ammonia solution drop wise | Dirty brown gelatinous ppt. insoluble in excess
|
Blue ppt. insoluble in excess, turn pink on standing.
|
* White ppt. insoluble in excess, turns brown on standing |
| * A few drops of hexacyanoferrate (II) | *Dark blue ppt | No observable change
|
No observable change
|
| To 1 ml of solution add a few crystals of KSCN followed by amyl alcohol | No observable change | *Blue color in organic layer | No observable change |
| To 1 ml add equal amount of conc. HNO3 followed by a few crystals of sodium bismuthate | No observable change
|
No observable change
|
A temporary purple coloration that turns brown ppt.
(NB the test is positive in absence of Cl–) |
Group 5
This group contains Mg2+, Ca2+, and Ba2+. Compound of the ions are white and dissolve in water to give colorless solution. Unlike the white compound in-group 1, these form curdy /powder like precipitate with sodium hydroxide solutions which are insoluble in excess. Because alkaline earth metal behave very similarly to each other in aqueous solutions, it is very difficult to distinguish them and especially to separate them. The different reactions used to distinguish between then are shown in the table below:
| Test | Mg2+ | Ca2+ | Ba2+ |
| To 1 ml of solution add dilute sodium hydroxide drop wise until in excess | White curdy ppt. Insoluble in excess | White curdy ppt. Insoluble in excess | White curdy ppt. Insoluble in excess |
| To 1 ml of solution add Freshly prepared ammonia solution drop wise until in excess, followed with ammonium chloride solution | White gelatinous ppt. Soluble in ammonium chloride solution
|
No Observable change
|
No Observable change
* With an aged solution a precipitate may occur due to formation of calcium carbonate |
| Ammonium carbonate followed by a few drops of ammonium chloride | White ppt. Soluble in ammonium chloride | White ppt. insoluble in ammonium chloride | White ppt. insoluble in ammonium chloride |
| Potassium chromate followed with dilute acetic acid (30%) | No ppt. formed | No ppt. formed
|
*A yellow ppt insoluble in acetic acid |
| Dilute sulphuric acid followed by conc. H2SO4 and boil | No ppt. formed
|
White ppt. Soluble in hot concentrate sulphuric acid | White ppt. Insoluble |
| Saturated solution of calcium sulphate | No ppt. formed | No ppt. formed | *White ppt |
| Ammonium oxalate solution followed by drop acetic acid | No precipitate formed | White ppt insoluble in acetic acid | White ppt soluble in acetic acid |
| To 1 ml add a spatula endful of ammonium chloride followed by 1 ml Na2HPO4 solution | No Precipitate formed | White ppt formed | White ppt formed |
The following salts and concentrations can be used to study the reactions of the cations
| Ion | Salt | g in 100cm3 of solution enough for 15 students |
| Pb2+ | Pb(NO3)2 | 4 |
| Zn2+ | ZnSO4 | 4 |
| Al3+ | Al2(SO)3 | 4 |
| Fe2+ | FeSO4, (NH4)2Fe(SO4)2 | 4 |
| Fe3+ | Fe2(SO4)3 | 4 |
| Cu2+ | CuSO4 | 4 |
| Ni2+ | NiSO4 | 4 |
| Cr3+ | KCr(SO4)2 | 4 |
| Co2+ | CoSO4 | 4 |
| Mn2+ | MnSO4 | 4 |
| Ca2+ | CaCl2 | 4 |
| Mg2+ | MgSO4 | 4 mix and filter, use the filtrate |
| Ba2+ | BaCl2, Ba(NO3)2 | 4 mix and filter, use the filtrate |
The following solutions can be used to study the reactions of the anions
| Ion | Solution |
| SO42- | Dilute sulphuric acid |
| NO3– | Dilute nitric acid |
| Cl– | Dilute hydrochloric acid |
| CO32- | ZnCO3 salt |
How to promote learning of qualitative inorganic chemistry
- Create a relationship with laboratory personnel. It is you to lose when the laboratory personnel hates your class.
- Share this knowledge with the laboratory personnel, s/he may be ignorant
- Volunteer to help the laboratory personnel with washing equipment, delivering and removing equipment to and from the laboratory after the practical lesson. Knowing that laboratory work is tedious.
- Interact the laboratory equipment freely with no fear after all it your parents to refund the broken apparatus
- Do not panic, otherwise will contaminate the solution by mixing up droppers from solution to solution leading erroneous observation.
- If you are a teacher it advisable to carry out any practical before giving it your student however familiar a practical may be.
- Before you hand your answer sheet ensure that your observation and deduction are coherent/logical. For instance when Pb2+ ions are confirmed with a yellow ppt. using potassium iodide solution, the a white ppt soluble in excess dilute sodium hydroxide solution should have been observed (and Pb2+, Al3+, Zn2+ deduced), and a white ppt. insoluble in excess with ammonia should have been observed (and Pb2+, Al3+ deduced).
Reasons for improper/missed observations
- Improper preparation of reagents
- Contamination especially during the practical lessons when students mix up droppers. In exams it is advisable to start with the qualitative numbers before the reagents are contaminated with reckless students. If a practical is done in shifts fresh reagents should be provided for each shift.
- Using a different reagent in panic instead of that mentioned in the test.
Example of experimental results
Example 1
You are provided with a substance Q [Fe(NH4)2(SO4)2] that contains two cations and one anion. You are required to identify the cations and anion present in Q. Carry out the following tests and record your observation and deduction in the spaces provided. Identify any gases evolved.
| Tests | observation | Deductions |
| a) Comment on the appearance of Q | Green crystal | Fe2+, Ni2+ Cr3+ (green color)
SO42-, Cl–, NO3– (crystalline) |
| b) Strongly heat one spatula end full of Q in a dry test tube | A liquid that turned the color of anhydrous copper Sulphate blue
A gas that turned damp red litmus Paper blue A gas decolorized KMnO4 solution
A brown residue |
Hydrated compound
NH3, NH4+ confirmed
SO2, SO42- suspected (Note that SO2 is given off after NH3 the reason why a red litmus turns blue then red) Fe2+ suspected oxidized to Fe3+ |
| c) Dissolve one spatula end full of Q in about 5 ml of water, shake to dissolve and divide the solution into five portions | A green solution | Fe2+, Ni2+ Cr3+ (green color)
SO42-, Cl– (soluble ions) |
| i) To the first portion add sodium hydroxide solution drop wise until in excess. Warm the resultant mixture
|
A green ppt. insoluble in excess
Turns brown on standing A gas that turned damp red litmus blue |
Fe2+
NH3, NH4+ confirmed |
| ii) To the second portion add ammonia solution drop wise until in excess | A green ppt. insoluble in excess
Turns brown on standing |
Fe2+
|
| iii) Use the third portion to carry out a test of your choice to confirm the second cation | A deep blue solution on addition of
Potassium hexacyanofferate III |
Fe2+ confirmed |
| iv) To the fourth portion add 2-3 drops of lead nitrate solution and boil the resultant mixture | A white ppt. insoluble on boiling | SO42-, Cl– suspected |
| Use the fifth portion to carry out a test of your choice to confirm the anion
|
Additional of barium chloride solution followed by dilute nitric acid, a white ppt. formed | SO42- Confirmed present |
Identify the Cations: Fe2+ and NH4+
Anion: SO42-
Example 2
You are provided with a substance P ( CuSO4 + NaCl in ratio 2:1, add little to make a damp green solid) that contains one cation and two anions. You are required to identify the cation and anions present in A2. Carry out the following tests and record your observation and deduction in the spaces provided. Identify any gases evolved.
| Tests
|
Observations
|
Deductions
|
| (a) Place 2-3 Spatula end full of P in a boiling tube and add to it about 5 cm3 of distilled water. Then add excess silver nitrate solution and filter. Keep both the residue and the filtrate. | Blue filtrate
White residue |
Cu2+
Cl– |
| (b) Divide the filtrate into 4 portions
(i) To the first portion add sodium hydroxide solution drop wise until in excess. Warm the resultant mixture |
Blue ppt. turn black on warming | CuO formed, Cu2+ suspected |
| (ii) To the second portion add ammonia solution drop wise until in excess | A blue ppt. dissolved in excess ammonia to form a deep blue solution | Cu2+ confirmed |
| (iii) To the third portion add 2-3 drops of lead nitrate solution then few dilute nitric acid.
Warm the resultant mixture |
A white ppt. insoluble in nitric acid | SO42- suspected
(NB. Cl– were removed by silver nitrate) |
| (iv) Use the fourth portion to carry out a test of your choice to confirm the first anion in the filtrate
|
Addition of barium chloride solution followed by dilute nitric acid, a white ppt. formed | SO42- confirmed |
| (c) Add water to the residue several times, decant to wash it
To the cleaned residue, add dilute nitric acid drop wise followed by dilute ammonia until in excess |
The residue is insoluble in nitric acid but soluble in ammonia | Cl– confirmed
(NB. The residue was AgCl) |
Identify the Cations: Cu2+
Anions: SO42- and Cl–
Example 4
You are provided with a substance K (MnSO4 + ZnCO3) that contains two cation and two anions. You are required to identify the cation and anions present in K. Carry out the following tests and record your observations and deductions in the spaces provided. Identify any gases evolved.
| Tests | Observations | Deductions |
| (a) Heat a spatula end-full of K first gently and then very strongly until there is no further change | A liquid that turned anhydrous copper Sulphate blue
A gas that turned lime water milk Brown residue |
Hydrated compounds
CO2 given off, CO32- Pb2+, Zn2+, Mn2+ |
| (b) Transfer two spatula end-fulls of K to a test tube, shake it with about 10 cm3 of water and filter.
Keep both the filtrate and the residue. |
Colorless filtrate
White residue |
Zn2+, Pb2+, Mn2+
SO42-, Cl– CO32- |
| (c) Divide the filtrate into five portions
(i) To the first portion add ammonia solution Drop wise until in excess |
White ppt. insoluble in excess rapidly turns brown |
Mn2+ |
| (ii) To the second portion add sodium hydroxide drop wise until in excess. | White ppt. insoluble in excess rapidly turns brown | Mn2+ |
| (iii) Place the third part of the filtrate in a small porcelain dish; add 2-3 drops of concentrated nitric acid, followed by a little amount of solid sodium bismuthate. | A purple solution | Mn2+ confirmed present |
| (iv) To the fourth part of the filtrate add a few drops lead nitrate solution and warm. | White ppt. insoluble on heating | SO42- |
| (v) Use the fifth portion to carry out a test of your choice to confirm the anion present in K. | A white ppt. formed with barium chloride solution insoluble in nitric acid | SO42- confirmed present |
| (d) Wash the residue, dissolve it in dilute hydrochloric acid and divide the solution into three portions.
(i) To the first portion add sodium hydroxide drop wise until in excess. |
Dissolves with effervescence giving of a gas that turned lime water milky
White ppt. soluble in excess |
CO2 given off, CO32- confirmed present
Pb2+, Zn2+ |
| (ii) To the second portion add ammonia solution drop wise until in excess | White ppt. soluble in excess | Zn2+ confirmed present |
| (iii) To the third portion of the solution, add 2-3 drops of potassium iodide solution | No observable change | Zn2+ confirmed present |
| (iv) to the fourth portion of the solution, add 2-3 drops of potassium hexacyanoferrate (II) solution | White ppt | Zn2+ confirmed present |
Identify the
(i) cations in K: Mn2+ and Zn2+
(ii) and anions : SO42- and CO32-
Thanks Dr. Bbosa Science
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Today, I went to the beach front with my children. I found a sea shell and gave it to my 4 year old daughter and said “You can hear the ocean if you put this to your ear.” She put the shell to her ear and screamed. There was a hermit crab inside and it pinched her ear. She never wants to go back! LoL I know this is totally off topic but I had to tell someone!