Livestock management

Bbosa Science 06/12/2024 07:32 0

Livestock includes all animals kept on a farm for economic purposes e.g. pigs, cattle, goats, sheep, camel, chicken, ducks, bees, pigeons, turkeys etc.

Importance of livestock management in Uganda

It’s a source of income more especially when the animals are sold wholly by the farm.
The livestock industry provides market to the agro chemical industry through the sale of drugs and feeds.
Livestock are a good source of proteins for man in form of eggs, milk, meat etc.
The livestock industry provides employment both directly to people working in leather turning industries and milk processing plants.
Livestock provides manure which is rich in nitrogen and phosphorus to be used in crop gardens.
Livestock have found a place in cultural and traditional ceremonies where they are being used as sacrifices to appease gods.
Some animals like the cattle, donkeys and the horses are being used as a source of labor in transporting farm produce and ploughing.
On the national level, livestock products like hides and skins are a good source of foreign exchange for the country which improves the economy.
The livestock industry is a source of government revenue when taxes are levied on livestock and their products.

Factors determining the type and breed of livestock to be kept in Uganda

Climate: the high temperatures of the day tend to discourage most of the exotic animals of European origin and such animals are limited to particular areas of Uganda with favorable environmental. Conditions

Pests: the presence of pests like ticks and tsetse flies has limited the raring of exotic animals since they are more prone to tick borne diseases like: East Coast fever, red water, etc.

Availability of Feeds: animals like pigs require high protein feeds which are expensive for most of the farmers. This may discourage the rearing of such animals where feeds are not available.

Diseases: like swine fever in pigs, coccidiosis and new castle in poultry tend to limit the distribution of livestock in many parts of Uganda.

Risk baring capacity of the farmers: most farmers in Uganda are peasants with low income. This means that such farmers cannot easily take high risks of looking after high value exotic animals like Friesian cattle.

A low level of skills and education among farmers: most farmers in Uganda are illiterate and have little knowledge on how to manage livestock to look after. This will affect their choice of livestock and hence distribution.

The expected additional function of the animals: animals that have many functions will always be liked and their distribution in an area is high e.g. cattle. Cattle can provide meat, milk, manure and Labor which other animals may not

Religion and traditional beliefs: some animals are viewed as unclean by certain religion and traditions e.g. the pigs among the Muslims. This meant that such people can’t look after the pigs.

Capital: in the presence of enough capital, a farmer can look after the highly productive exotic animals with less problems since he can raise all the necessary infrastructure like dips, perimeter fences, spray races etc.

Government policy: enabling policy has led to an increase in the distribution of livestock in some places e.g. restocking of cattle some areas in Uganda like Teso with cattle.

Market: the availability of market for certain livestock or their product in a particular area will increase their distribution and vice versa.

Characteristics of the livestock industry in Uganda

The number of animals kept is unrestricted with most farmers preferring quantity to quality.
There is very little attention given to the improvement of the pastures since they are grazed communally.
The grazing time is limited as the animals are taken out to graze during the day and brought in the kraal at night.
There is little planned mixed farming i.e. crop and animal units are rarely integrated.
Breeding is rarely controlled e.g. animals mate when they are still very young and there is a lot of inbreeding.
The watering places are very far away from the grazing places and animals spend a lot of energy walking.
Generally the standard of livestock management in Uganda is very poor with no records kept at farms.

Problems of the livestock industry in Uganda

Pests and diseases: the tropical conditions favor the multiplication of the pests like tsetse flies and internal worms. These have caused a lot to farmers.

Lack of enough capital: Most farmers in Uganda are poor and therefore can’t afford expensive inputs like drugs, animal feeds etc.

Breeding: In Uganda most animals are mated when they are still young and there is a lot of inbreeding which will affect the quality and quantity of livestock products.

Poor Housing: There is no proper housing for livestock in Uganda and the animals are left to sleep outside where they are exposed to advanced environmental conditions which will affect their products.

Poor Record Keeping: Most farms in Uganda lack records of individual animals and the farms in general. This makes selection for breeding and culling difficult (removal of unproductive animals in the farm)

Limited Extension Services: Most farmers do not receive enough information on livestock management from extension staff. This is because extension workers are far and are not well facilitated.

Poor Marketing System: The markets for livestock and their products are still few and scattered with fluctuating prices which discourage the farmers.

Poor Pastures: Most of the pastures graded by the animals are of poor quality which lowers animal production

Insecurity and cattle rustling: Some places in Uganda are politically insecure which leads to loss of life and property hence discouraging livestock production.

Harsh climate: Long drought leads to inadequate water and pasture which lower animal production

Solutions to the livestock problems in Uganda

Extension workers should be facilitated so that they can give services to the farmers more especially those who are in remote areas.
Provision of loans, farmers should be provided with loans more especially soft loans so that they have enough capital to improve on their infrastructures like fences, dips etc.
Artificial insemination should be encouraged so that farmers can maintain high quality animals which are more productive through the importation of semen.
Marketing of livestock and their products should be organized so that farmers can easily get the information through the internet, newspapers and farmers journals about the markets and the available prices.
Settled grazing should be encouraged so that more attention is given to the animals for better production.
The land ownership laws should be improved so that farmers can get access to land easily at low cost involved. Proper land ownership also encourages the development of that particular land.
The paddock system of grazing animals should be introduced so that animals can be controlled to reduce over grazing, encourage mixed farming and improvement of the pastures.
Routine vaccination of animals against killer diseases e.g. rinder pest, ant swine fever, foot and mouth diseases. N.B: should be done by the Government to reduce the incidence of such diseases.
Government should endeavor to subsidize agricultural inputs so that the farmer can enjoy a higher profit margin that can encourage them to develop their farms.
Security should be maintained in all areas so that livestock farmers are encourage by reducing risks of property and life loss
Valley dams should be constructed so as to solve the problem of inadequate water during drought

Cattle rearing

Classification of cattle

Phylum; Chordata

Class; Mammalia

Order; Artiodactyla

Genus; Bos

Species; indicus (humped cattle)

taurus (hump less cattle)

The immigrant cattle (long horned and short horned) are considered as ancestors of Bos taurus (European type of cattle) and the Bos indicus (zebu) type.
These mixed at different times in different ways to create the sanga cattle which is the predominant type of cattle today.
In East Africa, the sanga have been displaced by the zebu.

Differences between Bos taurus AND Bos indicus cattle

*Bos taurus* /Exotic	*Bos indicus* / Indigenous
Don’t have a prominent hump.	Have a prominent hump.
Rounded ears held at right angles with the head.	Have long dropping pointed ears.
Have a short and wide head.	Have long and comparatively narrow head.
Relatively large with the bull weighing up to 1000kgs	Relatively small with the bull rarely weighing exceeding 700kg.
The dewlap, umbilical cord and the brisket are small or absent.	Dewlap and brisket are extensively developed.
Have thick skin which is relatively tight.	Have a thin and loose skin.
Have large amounts of subcutaneous fat.	Have small amounts of subcutaneous fat.
Hair tends to be relatively long and rough	Hair is relatively short and smooth.
Legs tend to be short and are slow moving.	Legs are long and fast moving.
Mature more easily and reach full maturity at 4 years.	Slow maturity and reach full growth at 5½ years
Back line is straight	Backline is high at the shoulders, low behind the hump and higher over the pin bones.

Indigenous cattle in Uganda

These are humped cattle of tropical origin. Examples are; Zebu, Brahmin, Sanga, Nkole and Boran

Characteristics of indigenous cattle in Uganda

They are resistant to adverse climate like high temperatures and drought
They can walk for long distances without losing condition
They easily convert poor pastures into milk and meat
They are tolerant to tick borne diseases like east coast fever
They have few problems of reproduction
They are cheap to buy and maintain
They are less productive in terms of milk and meat

The indigenous cattle are being kept for meat and milk by the communities in Uganda. Improvement of these animals is being carried out through upgrading with exotic cattle.

Exotic cattle in Uganda

These do not have humps cattle that have been imported into east Africa from European countries. They are kept for milk and meat or both

Examples of exotic dairy breeds; Friesian, Jersey, Guernsey and Ayrshire
Examples of exotic Beef breeds; Galloway, Hereford, Charolais, Sussex, Aberdeen Angus, Lincoln Red, etc.
Examples of dual-purpose exotic breeds; Red Poll, Dexter, Short horn, South Devon and Welsh Black

Characteristics of exotic cattle in Uganda

They have a high growth rate
They are not resistant to tick borne diseases
They have high rate reproductive problems
They cannot tolerate high temperatures and drought
They require high quality feeds for high production
They lose condition after walking for long distances
They require a high level of management
They are highly productive in terms of milk and meat

Management of cattle

This is the care given to cattle to improve and maintain a high production.

A stockman is the person entrusted with the work of caring for livestock on a farm

Qualities of a good stock man

Should be kind to the animals by avoiding rough treatment that can cause injury and death to animals
Should know well the monthly or routine operations on the farm like drenching, vaccination to reduce risks of disease and death of animals
Should have a high ability of identifying sick animals and those on heat for prompt action.
Should be able to identify and remove dangerous objects from the farm to reduce injury to livestock
Must be able to keep good up to date records for reference purposes
Should be able to take correct decisions as and when required to reduce losses on the farm
Should be honest to reduce losses to the farm
Should be healthy and energetic so as to carry out work as and when required
Should be highly knowledgeable in livestock management to ensure high animal production
Should be able to do work on the farm under minimum supervision from the high officers

Management practices in cattle

These are operations done on cattle to ensure high production. They include the following:

Dehorning
Branding
identification
Castration
Grooming
Casting / putting animals down
Vaccination
Hoof trimming
Drenching / dehorning
Restraining

1. Dehorning

This is the removal or suppression of horns on animals. Suppressing horn growth at an early stage is called Disbudding

Importance of dehorning

To make the handling of the animal move easy especially during drenching, castrating, ploughing etc.
To allow more animals to fit in space during transportation of the animals and even in kraals.
To reduce injury which is may be caused by horned cattle to others.
To prevent the destruction of farm structure like fences by animals those are horned.
To beautify animals hence making them more appealing.
It introduces uniformity in a herd
Makes animals to grow faster as nutrients meant for horn development are used in growth

Methods of dehorning

The method used will depend on the age of the animal, farmer’s skill and to some extent capital. Methods used in dehorning are;

Use of caustic pencils or chemical dehorning
Use of hot iron
Use of dehorning saw
Use of a rubber ring
Use of dehorning wire
Use of dehorning clippers

(a) Chemical Method for dehorning:

This is where caustic pencils or sticks are used in suppressing horns by rubbing it against the horn buds. It’s done to young animals between 3-14 days of age.

Procedure of dehorning using chemical method

Restrain the calf using ropes and cast it down
Clip the hair around the horn bud to expose it

Rub the caustic sticks or pencils are against the horn bud until bleeding occurs

Apply fly repellants and antibiotics on the wound created
Release the calf after the operation
Do not allow the calf into rain for a few days for faster healing of the wounds.

(b) Hot iron method of dehorning:

This is where a hot iron is applied on the horn bud to burn and kill the growing cells.

Procedure of dehorning using hot iron

Restrain the calf using ropes and cast it down
Heat the iron in fire or gas until it is red hot.

Apply the hot iron around the horn bud for about 10 seconds to burn the growing cells.

Care should be taken not to go deep as it can damage the brain
Apply fly repellants on the wound created to keep away flies and stop the wound from becoming septic respectively
The animal should be released after the operation

Monitor the animal to ensure that it does not go under rain

(c) Use of a rubber ring to dehorn

A rubber ring is placed at the bottom of the horn bud which will stop blood supply to the horn and cut it off with in three to six weeks depending on the size of the horn. It is done on small horns at early age

Procedure of dehorning using a ring

Restrain the animal in a crush or using ropes
Use an elastrator to stretch out the rubber ring

Place the rubber ring at the base of the horn and remove the elastrator to release the rubber ring

Release the animal after the operation

(d) Use of dehorning saws:

This is used where the horns have grown up and is long enough. The horns are cut off near the base after restraining the animal.

Procedure of dehorning using dehorning saw

Restrain the animal using ropes and cast it down
Administer a localized pain killer in the skin surrounding the horn

Tie a piece of thin rope around the base of the two horns to control bleeding

Cut off the horn at the base using a dehorning saw
Repeat the same procedure to remove the second horn
Use a hot iron to seal the wound to stop bleeding.

Apply insect repellants and antibiotics on the wound
Release the animal after the operation and closely monitor it to assess the healing process

Remove the ropes around the base after two days

(e) Use of dehorning wire to dehorn

This where a brittle wire is stretched and rubbed against a horn until it is cut off. The animal is restrained and the operation carried out

(f) Use of dehorning clippers to dehorn

Dehorning clippers are tools with open blades that remove horns by cutting. They are used in the removal of large horns

2. Castration

It’s the practice of rendering male animals sexually nonfunctional. In female animals, the practice is referred to as spaying

Reasons for castration:

To prevent the bad smell especially in the Billy goats.
To prevent undesirable males from breeding.
To make the animal docile and easy to work.
Castrated animals grow faster and produce quality meat.
Castration increases the quality of wool in sheep as more nutrients are channeled to the development of the wool.
It helps in the control of venereal diseases like contagious abortion.
It controls in breeding on the farm when males born on the farm are castrated.

Methods of Castration

There are two main methods of castration namely:

Open operation/ castration.
Closed castration

(a) Open castration:

This is where the scrotum is opened to remove the testicles. It can also be referred to as surgical operation.

This requires a sharp knife or blade to split the scrotum vertically up to the bottom for better bleeding.

Advantages of open castration

Ensures complete castration of the animal
It’s a cheaper method of castration since can be done using local implements like the knife

Disadvantages of open castration

It requires a lot of skill to be carried out
There is a high risk of infection due to the wound created
It is slow to be carried out
There is risk of over bleeding more especially in mature bulls

Procedure of carrying out open castration:

The animal should be restrained first using ropes.
Wash your hands using clean water and soap or wear clean gloves.
The scrotum of the animals should be washed and disinfected using clean warm water and soap
Dry the scrotum using a clean hand towel
Apply a localized anesthesia around the scrotum to reduce pain
Pull and squeeze the scrotum to locate the testes
Use a clean blade or knife to cut the scrotum vertically in order to remove the testes.
Pull the spermatic cords out and tie it using a clean string
Cut the spermatic cord just below the knot to release the testis
Repeat the same procedure to remove the second testis
Seal the wound to stop bleeding by using a hot iron
Apply fly repellants on the wound to keep a way flies
Apply antibiotic cream to stop the wound from becoming septic
Release the animal and keep it in reach for easy supervision

(b) Closed castration

This is a type of castration which is done without opening the scrotum. It can be done using the burdizzo/burdizzo method or using a rubber ring/ rubber ring method

A burdizzo is an instrument with handles which exerts pressure on closing its jaws while a rubber ring is a thick round rubber which is stretched using an elastrator before being placed on the “neck” of the scrotum.

Advantages of closed castration

It’s a fast method of castration
Does not require a lot of skill
No bleeding experienced
Less risk of infection since no open wound is created

Disadvantages of closed castration

Chances of a failed castration are common
It is expensive to buy a burdizzo
Castration using a rubber ring is very painful

(c) Castration using a Burdizzo

The Burdizzo is the name brand of a company that makes castration device which employs a large clamp designed to break the blood vessels leading into the testicles. Once the blood supply to the testicles is lost, testicular necrosis occurs, and the testicles shrink, soften, and eventually deteriorate completely.

Restrain the animal using ropes and cast it down
Pull the scrotum down wards to locate the spermatic cords, ducts and nerves
Open the jaws of the burdizzo by pressing the handles out wards
Place the burdizzo at the “neck” of the scrotum
Press the handles of the burdizzo in wards to lock the jaws and crush the spermatic cords, ducts and nerves
Open the jaws of the burdizzo and remove it from the crushed area
Release the animal after the operation
Keep the animal within reach for easy supervision

Castration using a rubber ring:

Here a strong rubber band is straightened using an elastrator and fixed around the “neck” of the scrotum. This cuts off blood supply to the scrotum and the testes which eventually degenerate and fall off after sometime. It’s the most painful method of castration though very effective. The farmer doesn’t expect any development of the scrotum for a life time.

3. Identification of farm animals

This is done in order to:

Enable a farmer to recognize his animal in case it’s lost.
To facilitate record keeping.

Methods of identification:

The main methods of identification are:

Branding
Ear tagging
Tattooing
Ear notching
Naming

(a) Branding farm animals

This involves sealing numbers, letters, designs or a combination of this on the skin of the animal.

Methods of branding

These include:

Hot iron branding
Chemical branding
Freeze branding

(i) Hot Iron branding

This is done using a branding iron which is heated and stamped on the animal skin to leave marks for identification. Branding is done on the less valuable part of a hide like lower part of the thigh, jaw and hump

Procedure of hot iron branding

Restrain the animal in a crush
Heat the branding iron in fire or gas until red hot
Stamp the hot iron on a less valuable part of the animal to burn the skin and leave marks
Remove the iron from the skin after a few seconds
Release the animal from the crush

(ii) Chemical branding

In this method, corrosive chemicals are applied on the skin causing leaving marks on the skin.

Restrain the animal in a crush
Clean the area to be banded
Dip the branding equipment in the branding chemical
Apply the chemical to the less valuable parts of the hide.
Release the animal from the crush

(iii) Freeze Branding

This involves applying liquid nitrogen to the skin which freezes the hair follicles so that they die and stop hair growth in that area.

A branding iron can be dipped in liquid nitrogen and then applied on the skin. The method is good since the skin / hide is not damaged and hence can be applied to any part of the animal.

(b) Ear tags farm animals

They are made of light metals or strong plastics written on with different numbers, letters or designs.

The ear tags are of two types.

piercing (self – piercing tags)
non-piercing

The self-fixing tags will be fixed on to the ear with force while a non – piercing ear tag, a hole must be made where it is fixed. An ear tag applicator can be used in stapling piercing ear tags on the ear

(c) Ear notching

This involves cutting V – shaped notches on the edge of the ear using sharp scissors or pincers. This method is popular in pigs because of their soft skin. The number and location of notches on the ear can be used for identification

(d) Tattooing

A special ink is used to inflict marks on the skin of the animal more especially inside the ear. The hair must be removed from that place before tattooing.

(e) Naming farm animals

Animal are given specific names for identification depending on a number of things like origin, coat color, etc.

4. Restraining farm animals

This is the hindering of movements of animals by physical force. It’s done so as to perform operations on the animals like: dehorning, castration, de-worming, identification, vaccination and drenching with minimum disturbance.

The amount of force applied during restraining depends on the temper, size and type of the animals. Cattle are not restrained in the same way as goats.

5. Casting livestock

This is a practice of putting animals down and it’s done when animals are to be controlled for a long time during operations like castration, dehorning and identification.

6. Grooming live stock

This involves brushing off loose hair, dung, dirt and lice from the skin of an animal

Reasons for grooming animals

To stimulate blood and lymph circulation in the body of the animal
To remove loose hair, lice and other external parasites
To facilitate mating in animals
For cleanliness and good appearance for the animals
For production of clean milk in lactating animals

7. Foot trimming of animals

This involves removing overgrown parts of the foot which impairs movement of the animal. It controls lameness in animals

8. Culling livestock

This involves removing unproductive and sick animals from the herd for slaughtering / selling.

It controls disease spread and wastage of feeds on the farm

9. Vaccination of livestock

This is done in order to control highly infectious diseases in livestock e.g. Swine fever, foot and mouth disease, Newcastle, rabies etc.

10. Drenching of livestock

This involves administering oral treatment as supposed to animals. It’s done using a drenching gun/bottle to control internal parasites like liver flukes, round worms, tape worms, and hook worms.

11. Rounding up

This is done in beef animals, and it involves bringing all animals on ranch in the centre of the kraal for the following reasons:

Castrate and vaccinate animals
Physical assessment of the animals
To separate animals according to age, sex, type etc.
To cull and market unproductive animals
To wean calves of at the right age
To carry out pregnancy diagnosis

12. Housing

The main reasons why animals are housed are

To protect animals from bad weather condition mostly young ones
To provide animals with a good opportunity of being fed well
To provide an area for special handling of the animals e.g. Crushes, dips, spray etc.
To provide a conducive environment for production and temporary storage for milk (quality milk)
To provide conducive working conditions for the farmer

Qualities of a good animal house

Provide an adequate floor space to avoid overcrowding
Should be water proof to avoid damp conditions that breed pathogens
Should have a concrete floor which is easy to clean
Should provide adequate light since it affects the productivity and behavior of animals
Should have adequate ventilation to control respiratory infections
The floor surface should have a gentle slope to allow urine to drain off easily
Should be built in such a way that animals can easily see each other

Livestock breeding

This is the mating of selected animals in a planned manner

Aims of animal breeding

To maintain desirable qualities in animals like increased number of eggs produced in chicken, high number of off springs born per animal,
Produce animals with a high mothering ability i.e. low temperament and high milk production
Produce highly fertile animals
Produce animals with a high growth rate
Produce animals that can give a lot products like milk and eggs
To come up with breeds that produce high quality meat, milk and egg
To produce breeds of animals that are resistant to parasites and diseases
Elimination of undesirable qualities in livestock
To produce animals with a high resistance to harsh environmental conditions
To produce animals that can provide products for a long period of time

Terms used in animal breeding

Allele: These are different forms of a gene at a particular locus e.g. Tt
Back Cross: This is a cross between an animal offspring and one of the parents
A breed: This is a large group of animals developed by the efforts of man having a common ancestry and possessing similar morphological, physiological and economic characteristics.
Breeding: This is a technique involved in mating selected animals because of their desirable characteristics.
Chiasma: This is a place of connection between two chromosomes seen during prophase I of meiosis.
Cloning is the production of an offspring which represents the identical genes as its parent.
Crossing over: This is the process of exchange of genetic information between two homologous chromosomes during meiosis.
Diploid: It’s an individual cell having 2 complete sets of chromosomes.
Epistasis: This is where a gene masks the effect of another. The gene which masks is called epistatic gene. The masked gene is called a hypostatic gene.
Dominant gene: Its one which can express itself phenotypically in both homozygous and heterozygous states e.g. a gene for tallness (TT) in a garden pea.
Inheritance: It’s a mechanism by which characteristics are passed on from parents to offsprings. If a character is 20% heritable. It means that the 20% is determined by the genes while the 80% depends on the environment.
A hybrid: These are the offspring resulting from a cross between two parents of different breed or stock.
Hybrid Vigor: (heterosis) this is un usual growth and healthiness (better performance) of organisms resulting from the cross between two different parents or better performance of a hybrid beyond that of parents
Inbreeding: This is the mating of closely related animals
Locus: This is the physical position of the gene on a chromosome
Linkage: This is the tendency of genes located on the same chromosome to be inherited together in a successive generation
Out Breeding: This is the mating of unrelated animals and is sometimes called crossing
Pedigree: It’s a chart showing the ancestry history of an individual
Progeny: These are offspring resulting from a mating
Recessive Gene: A gene whose expression is only seen when in a homozygous state only.
Heterozygous: It’s a situation where an organism has two different alleles e.g. Tt
Homozygous: It’s a situation where an organism has two like alleles e.g. TT or tt
Sex chromosomes: These are chromosomes that determine the sex of organisms e.g. X and Y chromosomes in animals.

Selection of farm animals

This is a practice of allowing some animals to be parents of future generations while depriving others of that privilege.

Types of selection

There are mainly two types of selections i.e. natural selection and artificial selection

Natural Selection in animals

This is one which always takes place through random mating, and it’s influenced by natural forces e.g. the ability of one individual to survive and reproduce in a certain environment.

In such a selection only, the fittest animals are able to survive hence survival of the fittest in the struggle for existence.

Artificial Selection of livestock

This is the type of selection controlled by man and doesn’t allow random mating, but mating is based on desired characteristics

Methods used in artificial selection

Individual / mass selection
Pedigree selection
Collateral relatives selection
Progeny tests
Tandem selection
Independent culling
Selection index

Individual Selection

This is done basing on the information about the animals performance as well as the performance of its progeny. It measures the likelihood of a trait being passed onto the next generation.
A comparison of animals based on their own individual performance is called the performance test. It’s used for traits of high heritability such as growth rate, fertility, mothering ability and feed conversion efficiency.

Pedigree Selection

Here animals are selected basing on the performance of their ancestors. This method is used for traits that can’t be measured in life e.g. quality of beef.
This method is not highly recommended because it can be easily manipulated by leaders and farm managers.

Collateral relatives Selection

This is selection done basing on performance records of close relatives like brothers, sisters, half-brothers etc.

The transmission of traits (characteristics) with known importance between relatives can be measured using subtests.

The accuracy of sub testing depends on:

Family size
Heritability of a character i.e. the ability of a trait to be transmitted from one generation to another
Intra family genetic relationships

Progeny tests

This is where selection is made basing on the performance of an animal’s offspring (progeny)

It determines the value of an animal breed and performance reflected in the following

Milk and butter fat production in case of dairy animals
Carcass quality in beef animals
Belly length in pigs

Advantages of progeny tests

Weakly inherited traits are easily noted and decisions made

It’s easy to know practically the productive qualities for both the bull and the cow
It’s more suitable for traits which are exposed after slaughter such as the carcass quality.

Disadvantages progeny tests

It’s a very expensive method of selection because it involves a lot of consideration before reaching the final judgment
It needs a lot of time hence its time wasting

Tandem selection

This where a desired trait is selected among many and improved before going for another

Independent culling

The breeder lays down a minimum standard for several traits and any animal that does not measure up to standard is culled

Selection index

Here, numerical values are given to potential parents basing on their characters and one with the highest value is selected

Factors considered in selecting animals for breeding

Adaptability of the animal to environmental conditions
Availability of the breed with in the environment
Availability of market for animal products for the animal being bred
Animal temperament should be low for easy handling
Animal resistance to pests and diseases should be high
Animal body conformity should confirm the breed and type
History of success of the breed in the environment
Feed conversion ratio of the breed i.e. should have a high ability of converting feeds into products like milk , meat and eggs
Growth rate of the breed
Availability of quality feeds for the animals
Fertility of the animal being considered
Productivity of the animal in terms of milk, meat and eggs

Breeding methods

This refers to those methods which deal with how the breeds that have been selected as parents for the next generation are mated.

Breeding methods are classified into two broad groups namely:

Close breeding
Out breeding/ cross breeding

Close Breeding

This is the mating of related animals e.g. a daughter and a father, a son and a mother, brother and a sister, grandparents and grand offspring.

Close breeding involves inbreeding and line breeding

Inbreeding

This is that mating of closely related animals like brother and sister, son and mother, etc.

Advantages of inbreeding

It helps to maintain a high relationship with the desirable ancestor.
It increases the degree of uniformity in the herd
The less desirable recessive genes are easily brought to light and therefore culled.
The good qualities of a particular breed can be easily maintained

Disadvantages of inbreeding

It requires a lot of skill in making planned mating and rigid selection
It leads to a reduction in survival chances of offsprings
Leads to a reduction in the fertility of animals
The offsprings got are usually of poor size

Line Breeding

This can be defined as the mating of animals of the same breed or distant relatives g. cousin, grandson and grandmother
It’s actually practiced in order to conserve the good traits of a certain outstanding sire or dam.

Out breeding /out crossing

This is the mating of unrelated animals. Sometimes such animals can be of the same breed but show no close relationship in the first four generations
Out breeding results in the production of offspring that are of better performance than the parents i.e. hybrid vigor.
Crossing can be done between breeds, species and lines. Examples of crosses between species are;

Male lion and female tiger results in a Liger

Male donkey and female Zebra results in an Asbra

Male Horse and female Zebra results in a Zebroid

Male horse and female Donkey results in a Mule

Bull and female buffalo results in a Beefalo

Grading Up

This is a system whereby pure exotic sires are mate with the local animals to improve the characteristics of local animals e.g.

Local female x 100% pure sire/ male

F₁ 50% pure female x 100% pure sire/ male

F₂ 75% pure female x 100% pure sire/ male

F₃ 87% pure female x 100% pure sire/ male

F₄ 93.7% pure female x 100% pure male

Breeding efficiency

This is the ability with which the herd is able to reproduce and multiply. It covers the entire period of breeding i.e. mating, conception, gestation and calving.

Criteria for breeding efficiency

Calving interval: This is the period between calving. Normally it is about 12 -13 months. In order to get a good calving interval, a rest period of 60 days should be given for the animal.
Age of heifer at first calving which should be 24 months. A higher age indicates a low breeding efficiency
Services per conception. The ideal ratio should be 1.6-1.8 and is measured by Number of services
Number of animals that conceive in a herd
Percentage of cows that calve within a year. A high percentage indicates a high breeding efficiency
Number of days a cow is pregnant in a year. The more the days, the higher the breeding efficiency
The percentage of non-returns. Non-returns arise when the service is done and pregnancy does not occur. A low percentage of non indicates a high breeding efficiency and vice versa

How to maintain a high breeding efficiency

Good feeding: Breeding animals should be fed well but excessive fattening should be avoided as it may reduce the fertility.
Observing the rest period: Animals should be given a rest period of about 60 days to allow the uterus to return to normal
Insemination at the right time: In case of artificial insemination, the cow should be inseminated towards the middle and late part of heat period as ovulation occurs 14 hours after the beginning of estrus.
Observation of animals on heat: This should be done as early as possible more especially where artificial insemination is being used to avoid the animal missing service.
Veterinary Attention: Animals that fail to conceive should be identified and examined to find out the causes and treated if possible.
Pregnancy diagnosis: Animals should be diagnosed to find out whether they have conceived or not so that appropriate measures can be taken in time.
Keep accurate breeding records for the herd to be used as reference were necessary
Use teaser bulls for early detection of heat in farm animals for early service
Maintain a good ratio of bulls to females to avoid over working the bulls which lowers fertility
Use correct techniques of artificial insemination to ensure successful fertilization hence high breeding efficiency
Females with abnormal discharges should examined and treated early enough
Know a complete breeding history of the animals before buying it into the farm

Mating animals

Animals can be mated using two main methods i.e. natural service and artificial insemination

Natural service of animals

This is where a male mates with the female directly. It is the most common method of service in Uganda

Advantages of natural service

Less costly since collection and processing of semen is not involved
Best methods serving animals with silent heat
Conception rate is higher than artificial insemination
It’s a quick method of service
Does not require special skills and training

Disadvantages of natural mating

Reproductive diseases can be easily spread
It’s difficult to practice controlled breeding under this method
Heavy bulls can easily injure weak females
Wastes semen on one female that would otherwise serve 100 female
Breeding records are difficult to keep

Artificial insemination

It’s a method of breeding in which semen is obtained from the male and introduced into the female reproductive tract by means of an instrument without direct contract between the males.

Advantages of artificial insemination

It’s easier and cheaper to transport semen from distant places than transporting a bull
Semen from good males may be stored for use in future years even after the death of such animals
This enables controlled seasonal and planned breeding on farms
It’s easy to keep accurate breeding records since the time of service is always known
It’s easy to control venereal diseases e.g. contagious abortion and trichomoniasis in a herd since semen used is first examined
Poor breeds or bulls can be easily eliminated from the breeding program giving room for better sires
Semen from lame bulls and those that are dead but of good quality can be easily used in the breeding
Injury to small and weak females by heavy bulls can be controlled using artificial insemination.
It reduces the cost and the risk of keeping a bull on the farm since bulls are usually aggressive.
Semen from good sires can be easily made available to farmers in rural areas through artificial insemination.
Artificial insemination is economical since one ejaculation can serve over 100 cows after dilution.

Problems of artificial insemination (A.I)

Silent heat: Some female animals do not show signs of heat hence it’s very difficult to carry out A.I on such animals
The method of communal grazing in Uganda does not easily allow A.I since poor bulls from different herds can mount animals.
There is a danger of disease outbreak more especially if contaminated semen is used.
Special skills are required to carry out artificial insemination which may be lacking among the farmers
Semen requires special equipment and conditions for storage which may not be easily available to the rural farmers.
Poor roads in rural areas make the transportation of semen to such places difficult and expansive.

Methods of carrying out

There are two main methods of artificial insemination i.e. recto-vaginal method and speculum method

Recto-vaginal method

This is where the rectum and vaginal are manipulated in order to have successful insemination. The hand is pushed in the rectum to remove dung and locate the cervix at the end of the vagina

Procedure

Restrain the animal in a crush to restrict its movement during the operation
Wash your hands with clean water and soap to reduce infection
Put on clean gloves
Thaw the semen in a basin of water at room temperature to reactivate the sperms
Sterilize all the equipment to be used
Insert the semen straw in the inseminating syringe
Lift the animal’s tail and insert one of the hands into the rectum to remove dung
Clean the anus and vulva using clean water and soap
Insert the hand in the rectum to locate the cervix in the reproductive system
Insert the inseminating syringe through the vagina and gently direct it to the cervix
Release the semen to the cervix
Massage the cervix after releasing semen so that it can be sucked into the uterus
Gently remove the inseminating syringe from the vagina and the hand from the rectum
Release the animal from the crush and monitor it for 21 days to ensure that it has conceived

Speculum method

This is where special equipment called a speculum is used in locating the cervix by inserting it in the vagina.

Procedure

Restrain the animal on heat in a crush
Wash your hands using clean water and soap and dry it with a hand towel
Sterilize all the equipment to be used in inseminating
Thaw the semen in a basin of water at room temperature
Insert the semen straw in the inseminating syringe
Wash the vulva with clean water and soap
Wear clean gloves
Insert the speculum into the vagina to locate the cervix
Insert the inseminating syringe into the speculum and release the semen
Gently remove the inseminating syringe from the speculum
Remove the speculum gently from the vagina
Release the animal from the crush

Reproduction in farm animals

This is a process that determines the existence of any animal species and the profitability of that animal. Reproduction is responsible for the number of organisms / animals which will lead to increased animal products, employment and diversification of the economy.

Hormonal control of estrus

Estrus is a period of high sexual desire in female farm animals. It is characterized by physiological and behavioral changes.

The female estrus cycle

The anterior pituitary gland secrets a hormone called follicle stimulating hormone (S.H.) which stimulates the growth of Graafian follicles in the ovary
It also stimulates the ovary to secrete a female sex hormone – estrogen.
Estrogen causes the signs of heat in females and also stimulates the anterior pituitary glands to produce another hormone called Luteinizing hormone (LH).
Estrogen makes the female animal more receptive to the male and increases sex urge in females.
Luteinizing hormone causes the rapture of mature follicles to release the ova in the process of ovulation.
After ovulation, luteinizing hormone stimulates the development of the yellow body (corpus luteum) from the remains of the follicles.
The corpus luteum produces a hormone known as progesterone which stimulates the growth of the endometrium in preparation for implantation.
Progesterone also inhibits the release of follicle stimulating hormone and luteinizing hormone from the anterior pituitary gland.
After a successive fertilization, the progesterone stimulates the growth and improves blood supply to the endometrium for successful implantation.
After implantation, the corpus luteum degenerates and the placenta becomes the new source of progesterone.

Multiple Ovulation and Embryo Transfer (MOET)

This is the ability to make female animal simultaneously produce several ova which are fertilized to form embryos

Objectives of MOET

Increases the number of offspring in the life time of a female farm animal
Makes cows with good traits produce more offspring for breeding beyond they natural capacity
Can be used in preserving endangered species since multiplication of offspring is high
It is easier to transport embryos than a live animal
Enables offspring to acquire better immunity from surrogate mothers
Weak and sick females can participate in the breeding program

Limitations of MOET

It is very expensive to carry out
It requires a lot of skill to be carried out
Success rate is very low

Important reproductive events in farm animals

Animal	Age at puberty in months	Length of heat in hours	Length of heat cycle in days	On set of heat after giving birth In days	Length of pregnancy in days
Cow	9-18	18-24	21	30-60	280
Ewe	7-8	24-48	21	17	147
Sow	5-6	48-72	21	7-56	110-118
Nanny/ female goat	7-10	48-72	21	Next season	150
Dog	7-9	18-25 days	6 months	6 months	63
Horse	12-36	2-12 days	18-28	5-15	335
Rabbit	3-7				31
Buffalo	10-20	2-24	11-30	40-60	320
Camel	24-36	3-6 days	20-28	20	390

Signs of heat in cattle

The vulva swells and becomes red in color
The animal urinates frequently
An animal on heat mounts other animals and allows others also to mount on it.
There is a reduction in milk yield for lactating vows
The animal becomes restless i.e. moves up and down in such for the male
It sniffs the vagina of another cow
Licking and rubbing of each other has also been noted amongst animals on heat.
There is less feeding as more time is spent in walking
There is a slight rise in the body temperature
There is mucus discharge from the vagina
The animal will stand still to be mounted by a bull (standing heat)
Makes noise

Note: Production of bloody mucus from the vagina means that heat has been missed.

Signs of heat in sheep

The female pays close attention to the male
The female wags its tail more vigorously
It stands still when mounted by the male but it’s hard for it to mount others.

Signs of heat in pigs

There is an intense search for the male by the female
The female pays little attention to food
The vulva becomes congested and swollen
The sow emits short grunts
It stands still when pressure is applied to the back
There is reddening of the vulva more especially in the white breeds
The sow can mount others and also allows others to do so.

Infertility in farm animals

This is a temporary failure of an animal to reproduce which can be corrected

Sterility is a permanent and irreversible failure of an animal to reproduce

Causes of infertility in cattle

Inheritance: some families of animals inherit low fertility from their parents.
Twinning in cattle: Although it’s rare in cattle, but when it happens, heifers born co-twin with males (free martins) can be sterile.
White heifer’s disease: This is infertility which is caused when the hymen is too strong and thus preventing natural mating or artificial service of the cow.
Cryptorchidism: This is when the male animals are born with both testes retained in the abdominal cavity making it unable to produce sperms.
Retained corpus luteum: this prevents the development of the eggs in the ovary by continuous production of progesterone (maintains pregnancy)
Cystic ovaries: This is when follicles fail to rapture in order to release the ova causing a condition called Nymphomania (excessive desire for sex) and the cow is set on prolonged heat.
Nutritional deficiency : Lack of vitamin A which is responsible for the formation and maintenance of membranes in the reproductive system lowers the fertility of cattle
Excessive conditioning (fattening) animals: Heavy fat deposits on the ovary affects its functioning and cause low fertility / infertility.
Management: Mating the animal too soon after calving, too early or late after onset of heat and failure to recognize heat signs will lead to infertility.
Venereal diseases like brucellosis and Trichomoniasis can also cause low fertility in farm animals.
Unfavorable conditions in the reproductive tract of a female can cause infertility
Use of defective sperms during service lowers animal fertility

Signs of pregnancy in cattle

Failure of the animals to have heat after 21 days.
Increase in the size of the belly more especially on the right-hand side.
A higher concentration of progesterone in milk and plasma 21 – 24 days after conception
The cervix opening is sealed and closed by a gelatinous and tough secretion
Udder tissues develop and enlarge especially in heifers at the 6^th month of pregnancy
At the later stage, the signs of life in the fetus can be felt after applying slight pressure on the right-hand side of the belly
Laboratory analysis of blood shows a higher level of progesterone in it

Caring for a pregnant cow

Provide clean water to the animal without any restriction
Carry out pregnancy diagnosis two month after service to confirm pregnancy
Dry off the animal at the 7^th month of pregnancy to prepare it for the next lactation
After drying carry out dry cow therapy to control mastitis
Regularly deworm the animal to control internal parasites that may affect the unborn calf
Provide adequate feeds throughout the period to cater for high nutrient demands
Steam up in the last 2 month of pregnancy to prepare the animal for lactation
Regularly control external parasites by spraying at least twice a week
Vaccinate the animal against killer diseases so as to protect the unborn calf
Isolate the animal in the last 2 month from the general herd in put it in a nurse paddock
Provide a clean dry calving pen for the cow
During calving, assist the animal with difficulties
Milk the animal a little to reduce the udder pressure
If the after birth is retained, call in a vet for help

Steaming Up

This is the practice of giving extra nutritious feed to a pregnant cow two months prior to calving.

Importance of steaming up

It prevents nutritional disorders associated with milk secretion like milk fever
It allows the heifer to get used to the milking place when steamed in a milking parlor.
Replaces the nutrients that have been used in the development of the fetus
It prepares the cow/ heifer physiologically for the next lactation period.
Allows the animal to put on weight in preparation for calving
Makes a heifer get used to feeding on concentrates
Stimulates the development of mammary glands for milk production
Encourages the production of high-quality colostrum for the calf at birth
For proper growth of the fetus

Signs of calving

The cow / heifer stay away from the general herd and lies down rather than standing.
The udder becomes extended as well as the teats
The cow becomes increasingly uneasy
Loss of appetite
The vulva becomes flabby (becomes soft and loose)
There is frequent urination
Repeated arching of the back and raising of the tail

Care of the cow at calving

The animal should be taken to the calving paddock or stall
The place where the cow is to calve should be clean and free from sharp objects
The animal should be left to deliver by itself for at least 1 hour
In case of failure, the veterinary officer should be called in for help.
Remove the after birth as soon as possible

Care after calving

The calf should be left with the mother so that it can clean it by licking.
Normally, the calf removes the mucus membrane from the nostrils by sneezing
In case the calf fails to breath, artificial respiration should be initiated by:

mouth to mouth respiration
handling the calf with the hind legs and lifting it up then releasing it gently
tickling the nostrils with a piece of straw to initiate sneezing

Give the cow warm water to drink so as to assist in the digestive system
Disinfect the naval cord of the calf with iodine to reduce infections
Milk the cow a little to release the pressure in the udder
Allow the calf to stay with the mother for 2 – 3 days to ensure that it takes colostrum.

Management of calves from birth to weaning

Clean the calf by removing the mucus membranes from the calf in case the mother fails
Disinfect the umbilical cord using Dettol and tie it to stop tetanus infection
In case the calf fails to breath normally, artificial respiration should be initiated
Leave the calf with the mother to ensure that it takes colostrum
In case of artificial rearing, the calf should be trained to drink from the bucket within two days after birth
Feed the calf on clean milk at least twice a day
Provide plenty of clean drinking water at all times of the day
Provide roughage to the calf at the age of about 2 weeks to facilitate rumen development
Towards weaning, introduce milk replacers to save milk for the market
Carry out identification of the calf at least 2 weeks after birth
Male calves that are not going to participate in the breeding program should be castrated in the 4^th week from birth
Calves should be dehorned using the hot iron method in the second week
Deworm calves regularly to control internal worms that affect growth
Vaccinate calves against killer diseases to reduce mortality
Clean the pen regularly by removing dirty litter so as to reduce infections
Wean the calves at about 2 months after attaining the right weight

Major causes of calf mortality

Calf scours characterized by diarrhea with a foul smell
Calf pneumonia: this caused by poor housing conditions
Navel infection: this caused by bacterial attack of the navel creating septic conditions
Internal worm infections resulting into stunted growth and diarrhea
Calf coccidiosis characterized by feces with foul smell. It is caused by bacteria
East Coast Fever which is transmitted by ticks and caused by protozoa. It is the leading cause of death in exotic calves. It is characterized by swollen lymph nodes of the parotid and diarrhea

Feeding calves

After calving, the calf should not be removed from the mother for the first 2 – 3 days in order to ensure colostrum intake.

Colostrum:

This is the milk produced by a cow for the first 3 – 4 days after calving. It is different from normal milk in the following ways:

i) It contains very high antibody content about 5 times more than normal milk.
ii) It has a high protein and vitamin content

Reasons for giving the calf colostrum

Contains antibodies which help the calf to fight disease
Removes sticky materials from the alimentary canal of the calf
It contains a lot of nutrients which are needed highly by the calf.

Methods of feeding / raring the calves

Natural rearing/Suckling: This includes single suckling (natural suckling), restricted suckling and foster mothering (multiple suckling)
Artificial rearing / bucket feeding

Single Suckling

This is where a calf is left to suckle from the mother without any restriction until it is weaned at about 4 – 6 months. This method is restricted to beef production and places where there is little market for milk.

Advantages of single suckling

It is the simplest and best way of producing large healthy calves
It is a suitable method for the beef farmers who have a little interest in milk but more in the beef of the animals.
It is labor saving as compared to the artificial rearing
Diseases due to unhygienic conditions e.g. Calf scours observed in bucket feeding are rare in this system.
Calves get milk at the normal body temperature which enhances proper digestion
This is the most suitable method of raising calves in places with low market for milk.
There is low mortality rate under this method of raising calves.

Disadvantages of single suckling

It is very difficult to keep feeding records in this system since the amount of milk taken by the calf is not known.
Injury to the teats is common as the calves suckle

Restricted suckling

The calves are allowed to suckle at certain periods of the day e.g. after the morning and evening /afternoon milking. Supplementary feeds can be easily introduced.

Advantages restricted

Well grown calves can be realized with proper management
There is a tendency of getting a high milk yield from the dam as it is milked in the presence of the calf.
There is low mortality rate since calve get clean milk at the right temperatures
Less cases of mastitis are noted under this method
It saves both labor and time.
Provision of supplementary feeds to calves would greatly improve their growth.

Foster mothering

In this method, a substitute mother is used in providing milk to the calves. The calf is first allowed colostrum for three days then allocated to the foster mother.

Advantages of foster mothering

The dam will give more milk when the calves are left to suckle it.
The method gives good calves as compared with bucket feeding.
The method uses less labor since supervision is little
The calves are able to get the milk at the normal body temperatures
There are fewer cases of calf scours
Case of mastitis in cows is rare
Milk from other dams can be saved for the market

Disadvantages fostering

In case of an infectious disease, a farmer may lose a good number of calves.
Weak calves are denied a chance of suckling at most times by the strong aggressive calves.
Injury to teats caused by the calves is more common
It is very difficult to keep feeding records in this system.

Artificial rearing (bucket feeding)

In this method, calves are removed from the dams three days after birth and reared by feeding them on milk or milk substitutes from a bucket.

Training the calf to drink from the bucket

The calf should be removed from the dam three days after birth to ensure colostrum intake.
Immediately after milking, the bucket with the milk should be presented to the calf for training.
Wash your hands with clean water and soap and dry it using a clean hand towel
The trainer should dip the index and middle fingers in the milk and later place it in the calf’s mouth to suckle.
The calf suckles the fingers as the trainer lowers the hand in the bucket containing milk.
As the mouth of the calf approaches the milk in the bucket containing milk, the fingers are removed slowly to allow the calf to drink milk.
The calf begins slowly to drink the milk and later learns
The calf should not be allowed to drink in large quantities at ago as the milk can choke it or enter the undeveloped rumen where it would ferment causing digestive disturbances.
Training can be repeated until the animal learns

Advantages of bucket feeding

It is easy to keep feeding records that can be referred to in any case since the amount of milk taken is known
Calves can be easily rationed according to their body needs
The farmer can introduce milk substitutes easily and therefore save milk for market.
The method permits early weaning which can save milk
The dam will give milk even when the calf dies
It encourages better management of the herd since the lactating cows are fed according to their production.

Disadvantages of bucket feeding

The mortality rate in this system is high since in most cases calves are given less or dirty milk.
Calves are more prone to diseases due to unhygienic conditions associated with feeding the calves
The method requires more labor and attention which are expensive to the farmer.
In case of an infectious disease, the farmer may lose a good number of calves.

Dairy cattle

These are cattle reared specifically for milk production.

Examples of exotic dairy breeds

Friesian, Ayrshire, Jersey, Guernsey and Kerry

Characteristics of a good dairy breed

Should be a high milk yielder
Should be resistant to pests and diseases
Should have a high fertility
Should be docile hence easy to be milked
Should have a large udder
Should be able calve easily
Should have a big milk vein
Should be able calve regularly for a long time
Should have a well suspended udder with four functional teats
Should have a long lactation which ensures continuous milk production
Should have strong hind legs for supporting a big udder

Factors to consider before establishing a dairy herd

Capital: This is the amount of money needed in the construction of farm structures, purchase of land and the animals.
Land: There should be enough land to accommodate farm buildings and paddocks where animals can graze from
Labor Both skilled and unskilled labor is required for performing specialized work and manual labor respectively.
Reliable source of water: Water is needed by the animals for drinking and also in other farm operations like cleaning and mixing of drugs.
There should be a ready market for milk and milk products which is easily accessible to reduce the costs incurred in looking for market.
Pastures: The place in consideration should have good pastures since the production of the animals is greatly affected by the quality of what they eat.
There must be reliable transport so that the farmer can easily move farm products to the market and bring back inputs.
The breed selected should fit the market demand and the Climatical conditions of the place in consideration.
Security is a very important factor for any business since insecurity results into loss of property and life
Government policy in place should be encouraging dairy farming through the provision of good breeds of cattle
Climate in the area should be good for dairy farming.

Importance of Dairy farming

Provides income to the farmer all year round since animals produce at any given period of the year
They can provide dung used for making farmyard manure
Can provide quality meat at the end of milk cycle after fattening
Provide food to the farmer in form of milk
Provide market for industrial products like meat
They are good converters of inedible pastures into milk

Strength of the dairy industry in Uganda

High demand for dairy products in Uganda
Integrated farming practices can accommodate dairying
Suitable climate in most areas of Uganda that favors animal production
Availability of quality fresh pastures throughout the year
Improved infrastructure that make transportation of milk to the market easy
Increased research and development in dairy farming
Improved extension services in dairy farming
Historical factors like a long history of cattle keeping among tribes in Uganda

Introducing exotic dairy cattle in an area

Fence off the whole grazing area to keep out intruders and pests
Partition the grazing land into paddocks for easy pasture management
Remove all weeds and injurious objects from the grazing land
Install water points in all paddocks for the animals
Introduce bait animals to the paddock to control ticks 3-6 months before bringing in the exotic animals
Spay or dip the bait animals regularly over the whole period
Remove the bait animals after a specified period and introduce the exotic animals
Regularly spray or dip the exotic animals to control external parasites

Management of dairy cattle

Regularity of care: The operations done on these animals should be performed regularly without abrupt interruptions as those may affect the production of animals.
Kindness to animals: Rough handling of animals like beating reduces the productivity and can even cause injuries that may be expensive to treat.
Exercise: Animals need light exercise for good health, but long distances of movement should be avoided as these require a lot of energy lowering animal production.
Grooming: Keeping hind quarters of animals off dung, loose hair and any dirt by brushing and dipping leads to production of high-quality milk.
Hoof trimming: Overgrown hoofs should be trimmed to avoid difficulty in movement and lameness
Dehorning: Apart from introducing uniformity in the herd, handling of dehorned animals is easy and less risky
Identification: For record purposes, dairy animals should be identified by ear tagging notching, branding and tattooing.
Provision of adequate water; Animals need enough water since the biggest percentage of their body is water. Excessive loss of water from the body reduces milk produced.
Breeding: A farmer should aim at breeding of his herd to increase animal number and productivity by incorporating good breeds in the breeding program.
Proper feeding: dairy animals should be given enough and highly nutritious feeds to improve and maintain a high level of production

Milk science

This is the way how milk is harvested from a cow.

Structure of the udder

Milk secretion

Milk is secreted by the secretory cells called alveoli secretory cells in the udder under the influence of prolactin hormone from the anterior pituitary gland
Milk is made from the nutrients eaten by the animal like blood sugar, amino acids and fatty acids
Vitamins and minerals can be added to milk from blood
The manufactured milk can be stored in cavities of the alveoli and small ducts

Milk composition

Component	Percentage
Fat (Butter fat)	3.7
Sugar (Lactose)	4.8
Protein (Casein)	3.2
Mineral	0.7
Water	86.6
Solids	1.0

Milk let down

This is down flow of milk from the udder to the lowest part of the teat or it is process by which milk is removed from the alveoli and small duct systems to the lower part of the udder i.e. gland cistern and teat canal.

Process of milk let down

When the udder is stimulated, by washing with warm water or suckling by the calf, a message is sent to the anterior part of the brain through the spinal cord.
A hormone called oxytocin is released in the blood stream from the anterior pituitary gland.
When the hormone reaches the udders, it causes contraction of muscles surrounding the alveoli
The squeezing action forces the milk into the gland and teat cisterns
The action of suckling / milking will bring the milk outside.

Ways of stimulating milk let down

Taking the cow to the milking parlor
Massaging the udder or washing it with warm water
Noise or rattling of milk buckets
Feeding of the on concentrates cow in the milking parlor
Approach of milking time
Presence of the calf at the milking place

Rules of good milking

Avoid exciting the animal before and during milking
Prepare and assemble the milking equipment before hand
Milking tie should never be interrupted
Milk at the same time every day
Prepare the cow for milk letdown by washing the udder with warm water
Use a strip cup to test for mastitis
Begin milking soon after preparing the cow to utilize short period of milk letdown

Milk hold-up

This is the opposite of milk let down where the cow holds up milk due to the production of adrenaline. Adrenaline limits blood supply to the udder therefore preventing oxytocin from reaching the muscles surrounding the alveoli. Adrenaline is produced when:

Presence of strangers around the milking parlor like dogs and cats
Rough handling of the animal by beating
Too much noise at the milking parlor
Improper dressing and change of the milking person
Pain during the milking process caused by mastitis or injury to the teats.

Milking Procedure

Assemble all milking equipment like buckets, cans and milking strainer in the parlor to avoid time wastage.
The cow to be milked should be restrained while in the parlor by tying the hind legs with a milking rope.
Wash the udder with warm water and soap and dry it using a hand towel.
Milking salve should be smeared on the teats to reduce friction and injury to teats
A strip cup should be used to test milk from each teat for mastitis
Cows suspected of mastitis should be milked last and the milk poured away
Follow the right milking technique of applying pressure to the outside of the teat while holding it between the index finger and thumb.
Weigh and record milk from each cow immediately after milking
Milk should be filtered using a milking strainer before being put in the can for cooling to remove all dirt and any foreign materials like hair.
All the milking equipment should be washed after milking and hanged upside down in the sun to dry.

Note: The milking should be done in seven minutes to utilize the time for milk let down.

Guidelines to clean milk production

Milk is said to be clean if:

It is free from dirt and any other visible matter
Has normal composition
Has desirable flavor
Free from harmful bacteria

In order to produce clean milk, the following points are important:

Clean, healthy cows must be maintained free of brucellosis and tuberculosis
Regular grooming and washing of animal is important for removal; of dirt and l loose hair that can contaminate milk.
All the equipment used during milking must be kept sterile by washing and drying.
The milking parlor should be kept spotlessly clean to reduce contamination of milk by microbes
Personnel handling milk should be clean by having clean clothes, short hair and finger nails
Milk should always be covered when in containers to stop foreign material from entering it.
The person milking should not be suffering from any contagious disease e.g. Tuberculosis.
Cows suffering from mastitis should be milked last and the milk poured away to reduce the spread f the disease.
Regular tests for tuberculosis in the herd should be carried out regularly and animals found with tuberculosis should be cull
Before milking, the milker should wash his hands thoroughly and dry it with a hand towel to reduce contamination of the milk with dirt.
The milking parlor should be far away from poultry houses, piggeries, manure pits and latrines which may pollute the air and provide a breeding ground for flies.
The milking parlor should be built on a high ground to permit good drainage
Wild plants which have an odor that can taint milk should be removed from the milking place.
Milk should be cooled from the normal temperature of 37^oC to 4^oC to reduce bacteria multiplication.
Proper milking techniques should be followed to reduce injury to teats and contamination of the milk.

Factor affecting the quality (composition) and quality (yield) of milk

Breed: Friesians produce large amounts of milk but of low butter fat while the indigenous produce less milk of high butter fat.
Age: older cows produce more milk than the young. However, the butterfat of the milk produced by the older cows is lower than that of the young cows.
Period of lactation: milk yield increases until the 7^th week then it starts declining up to drying off.
Animal Health: sick animals give less milk which may also contain antibodies and drugs more especially after treatment.
Animal Temperament: quiet animals are the best milkers while nervous cows which kick about give less milk.
Water Supply: water is needed for the health of the cow and also in the manufacture of milk since it is 87% water. Provision of enough water increases milk yield
Food eaten: animals fed on concentrates will produce more milk which is of better quality than those feed on the ration full of roughages.
Season of the year: during the rainy season cows produce milk with high butter fat content. The quantity of milk is also high due to the abundant pastures and water.
Heat Period: Estrus causes a slight decline in milk production which may be due to the reduced feed intake. The butterfat content of the milk can also fluctuate by 1% above / below
Temperature: high temperatures reduce milk yield due to the increased evaporation of water of water from the animal’s body.
Management: proper feeding of animal and better handling during milking will increase the quality and quantity of milk produced. Rough handling leads to the increase of adrenalin and hence milk hold up.
Milking Interval: the greater the number of milking times, the higher the amount of milk produced. However, morning milking produces milk with higher butter fat content.

Methods of milking

There two main methods of milking

hand milking
machine milking

Hand milking

Advantages of hand milking

Spread of mastitis is limited as compared to machine milking where mastitis is easily spread through the teat cups.
Hand milking has a low initial capital and therefore peasants can afford it.
It cannot be limited by power therefore more applicable to rural areas with no power.
Injury to teats is not common as witnessed in machine milking due to faulty machines.

Disadvantages of hand milking

It is very slow in operation and therefore cannot cope with large herds.
Efficiency declines with increase in the time worked
It is difficult to produces clean milk under this method
It is difficult to have complete milking hence a farmer stands to loose.
It increases Labour costs as more people are employed.

Machine milking

Advantages of machine milking

It produces clean milk more easily than hand milking
Complete milking is easily achieved
There is reduction of Labour cost since one person can handle more than 1000 cows in a short time.
It is faster in its operation hence saving time for animals to graze.
Can easily cope up with a large piece of work without getting tired.

Disadvantages of milking using machine

Needs skilled Labour to operate the machine which may be difficult to attain.
Its limited by power supply and can not work in places with no power.
Faulty machines can cause injury to teats
Diseases like mastitis are easily spread since the animals share the same teat cups
The initial cost of buying and installing the machine is high for most of the farmers in Uganda
It is only economical on farms with very large numbers of lactating animals.

Diseases associated with lactating cows

Mastitis

This is an inflammation of the udder caused by a number of bacteria and the most common are: – Streptococci and staphylococci

Types of mastitis

Acute Mastitis:

This is sudden in occurrence, marked with changes in the udder.

Chronic Mastitis:

This is slow in onset without obvious signs

Spread of Mastitis

Can be spread through: –

The milkers’ hands,
Teat cups of milking machines
Udder towels

Signs of mastitis

Blood stains in milk
Flakes and clots in milk
Discolored milk

Treatment of mastitis

Use intra mammaries which are antibiotics injected into the affected teats.

Control of mastitis

The milker must ensure that his hands are clean before milking
A strip up should be regularly used to test for mastitis
Before milking, the udder should be washed with warm water and dried using a towel
The farmer should pay more attention to soars on teats and prevent the plucking by using a milking salve
The teat cups should be rinsed and disinfected immediately after milking each cow
Animals suffering from mastitis should be treated promptly to stop the spread of the disease
Infected animals should be milked last, and the milk poured away.

Factors predisposing lactating animals to mastitis

Stage of lactation; it is more common at the beginning of lactation
Age of cattle; older animals are more prone to mastitis due an ageing immune system
Level of milk yield; high milk yielders are more prone to mastitis than the low yielders
Injury to teat and udder; this makes animal more prone to mastitis
Unhygienic practices: milking infected animals with health ones increases the chance of mastitis spread

Milk Fever (Parturient Paresis/ Hypocalcemia)

It affects cattle, sheep and occasionally goats

Causes of milk fever

Low blood calcium and phosphorus level with an increase in magnesium concentration. The normal ratio of calcium phosphorus should not be above or below 2:1.
Too much calcium in the ration

Symptoms of milk fever

It occurs in high milk producing cows soon after calving
Loss of appetite
Constipation and general depression
Muscular spasms (convulsions)
Uncoordinated movement and inability to stand
Nervousness is experienced by the animal
Paralysis and turning of the head back

Prevention milk fever

Feed the cow on a ration containing 0.5 – 0.7% calcium and 0.3 – 0.4% phosphorus
Calcium shock treatment: feed the pregnant animal 10 – 14 days before calving on a calcium deficient ration to activate the animals calcium mobilizing mechanism.
The pregnant animal should be fed on a ration with high vitamin D, six days before calving

Treatment of milk fever

The animal should be injected with calcium salts in form of calcium chloride, calcium lactate, and calcium gluconate.

Drying a cow

The dry period is when a cow is left without giving milk immediately after lactation period. The dry period should be for at least 60 days.

Reasons for observing the dry period

Allow the cow to restore udder tissues before getting back to lactation
Allow the cow to replace the minerals depleted during lactation
To give the fetus enough time to develop and also enough nutrients
To maintain a high future milk yield in the next lactation
Enable the cow to gain weight before delivering
To ensure high quality colostrum at birth

Procedure of drying a cow

Incomplete milking: this involves milking the cow halfway its production capacity so that the remaining milk in the udder exerts pressure on the milk secreting cells which will stop secreting
Intermittent milking: the cow is milked at intervals of days and later left completely after 5 days or more.
Cessation Milking: this is when milking stopped once for all. It causes a lot of pain to the animal and can easily result into mastitis
Dry cow therapy: Here antibiotics are included in feeds which will control mastitis.

Beef production

The main objective of beef production is to produce healthy young stocks, fatten them and sell for slaughter as meat.

Breeds of beef cattle in East Africa

The main indigenous breeds are the Boran and small, short horned zebus

The exotic breeds are Hereford, Aberdeen Angus, charlolais short horn and Galloway

Characteristics of a good beef breed

Should have a high ability to mature early
Should have a high ability to grow fast i.e. put on weight quickly
Should have thick muscles to increase the quantity of beef produced (have a deep body)
It should be able to breed regularly so as to increase the herd
Should have a high ability of converting herbage into beef
Should have a high resistance to pests and diseases common in the environment
Should be able to survive long drought periods without losing excessive weight
Should show a high degree of tolerance to heat

Factors limiting beef production in Uganda

Climate: long droughts that are rampant in many places of Uganda have led to the scarcity of pastures and water hence decreasing animal productivity.
Poor Soils: potential areas for beef production have poor soils which cannot support quality pastures for the animal.
Diseases: there are a number of diseases which attack livestock in Uganda. The most notable diseases are those transmitted by the vectors e.g. ticks and tsetse flies.
Inadequate Extension Services: most farmers live in rural areas which are difficult to reach by the extension staff. This denies them an opportunity of acquiring knowledge about beef production.
Conservation: Most pastoral communities in East Africa look at cattle number rather than the quality hence low production from the large number of poor-quality animals in terms of beef.
Poor Markets: Animal markets are poor and far from the production areas making transport to be difficult and expensive.
Poor Animal Breeding: Animals are mate while young and little time is spent on selecting the right breeds that are productive.
Poor Management: This can be reflected in the way records are kept and referred to if necessary. Most farmers do not keep update records and therefore animal production is difficult to judge.
Inadequate land: most areas of do not have enough grazing land due to competition between crops and animal production

Factors determining animal productivity

Inheritance: This is the most important factor since as the animal received genes of high productivity, and then it can always have the potential. However, productivity is affected by environmental factors which include:
Management: This involves proper care for the animal and observation of signs of ill health
Feeding: Animals that are underfed will have low production and are more prone to diseases.
Diseases: Irrespective of the animal’s potential of production diseases will always lower the animal’s production.
Climate: Under this, the most important factors are temperature rainfall and humidity. High temperatures of the day increase evaporation of water from the animal’s body which reduces milk production in lactating animals.
Humidity: High humidity reduces evaporation of water from the animal’s body hence conserving it for other productive purposes like milk secretion.
Parasites: Apart from transmitting pathogens, animal parasites can extract a lot of nutrients that are supposed to be used by the animals’ body.

Factors to consider before establishing a beef herd

Beef cattle may be raised under the farm herd system similar to having a dairy farm, or under the range / ranch cattle system. Under any of these systems, when establishing a beef herd there are a number of factors a farmer may need to consider.

Type of stock

Uniformity
Size of the herd
Health
Condition
Age and longevity
Productivity / fertility
Size of cattle
Adaptability

Systems of beef production

There are a number of systems for beef production requiring different levels of skill and management and some of the systems serve different purposes

Breeding pure bred animals

This is a specialized undertaking and requires great skill and experience in breeding and selection of animals. The purpose is to provide pure breed bulls / replacement stock to other breeders.

Cow and calf systems

Calves are left with their dams until weaning and the cows are not milked . It requires plentiful pasture and little supplementary feeding except in severe dry seasons.

Growing Stockers

Stockers are mainly steers and heifers or thin animals. They are only kept for one year and are fed on pasture. Progressive farmers and ranchers can adequately manage the undertaking. The purposes are to recondition steers and prepare them for fattening and heifers are conditioned for breeding.

Baby Beef Production

This is the production of tender meat from young stock. It involves breeding, rearing and fattening all done on the same farm.

At 4 – 6 months, all the calves are fed on concentrates.

The cows need full feeding in order to produce good calves.

The purpose is to finish the baby beef animals when they are 12 – 18 months old.

Fattening or growing

This involves the fattening of bought in animals after being fed on high energy feeds before selling

Aims of ranch management

To decrease the animal fluctuations in stocking numbers
To reduce the seasonal fluctuation in live weight of stock
To minimize reproductive performance towards the ideal of one calf per cow per year.
To minimize calf mortality and losses due to diseases
To maintain and improve breeding efficiency.

Factors that determine the size of the herd

The type of pasture species: high nutritive value of pastures therefore high carrying capacity.
The productivity of the pasture species: high rate of dry matter or forage for grazing means high number of stocks.
The type of stock: hardy types which can survive well in drier conditions and scarce pasture can be kept in large numbers.
Availability of reserve feeds: which enable a large herd to be carried through dry periods pasture is is scarce.
Economic considerations which are usually of a long-term nature e.g. Whether the farmer requires cash immediately and the cost of keeping a large number of animals.
Topography of the land where over – stocking in hilly areas could result into a serious case of soil erosion.
Availability of water , sufficient and available at all times
The presence of poisonous plants and trees that should render portions of the ranch useless.

Beef cattle health

The buildings of animals

- The buildings should be big enough to avoid over crowding
- Should be well ventilated to avoid respiratory infections.
- The floor should be made of concrete which is easy to clean.
- All buildings should be kept clean and be washed out regularly control disease.
- The calf pens should have adequate bedding which should be changed regularly.
- Flies and lice can be controlled by spraying / dusting.

The Grazing Area

All shrubs and trees which hinder good growth of grass of which could Harbor tsetse flies should be removed.

Water Troughs

These should be cleaned out twice a week. Murrum should be put around them to avoid muddy conditions that would encourage foot rot.

Breeding of animals

Cows should be serviced by healthy bulls to control diseases which can be transmitted by breeding or A.I should be used.

Dispensary of farm animals

This is mainly for animal drugs that should be kept at hand although some should not be kept by qualified veterinary personnel.

Drugs equipment and material that need to be kept at hand in the ranch/farm dispensary include:

Healing oil which can be applied on wounds e. after castration and dehorning
Cotton wool for dressing wounds
Syringes for injecting drug in the bodies of animals
Sulphur drugs such as sulphurdimidine which is a general drug for oral treatment or injection
Stilboestrol used in injections on cows after calving, if the after birth is retained and has to be removed.
Spirit for cleaning wounds and sterilization of instruments
Terramycin spray for skin wounds
Terramycin injectable solution which has a wide spectrum and can be used as a general drug against bacterial infections
Chlorohexidine for disinfecting e.g. cow’s udders

Butchery

Procedure of slaughtering an animal

a) Before Slaughter

The animals should at all times be handled humanly, rested and starved for 24 hours. This allows emptying of the gut and reduces spoilage and contamination of meat.
The resting also conserves stored body glycogen. After slaughter, glycogen is converted into lactic acid which has a preserving effect on the meat.
Inspection of the animal to check for any disease, deformities, injuries, sex etc. is done at this stage.

b) Stunning

This renders the animals senseless just before slaughter to reduce pain. Painless killing of animals is human and it is strongly recommended.

Stunning can be achieved either by use of a hammer gun or electric shock.

c) Slaughter

The neck of the animal is cut and it’s allowed to bleed by hoisting it up. Adequate bleeding is essential to reduce meat spoilage. Skinning is then followed by evisceration which is the cutting open of the carcass to remove the internal organs.

d) Inspection This is the postmortem inspection for infection by tuberculosis, cysts etc.

The carcass has to be passed for public consumption. Condemned carcasses are buried / burnt.

e) Grading

The products looked for are fat, degree of marbling, texture of meat and color. A pale color indicates poor quality

Factors leading to poor quality of meat from animals

Poor feeding of animals leading to disease and nutritional deficiencies
Poor meat preservation causing putrefaction
Diseases in animals that contaminate meat
Parasitic infection in animals causing cysts and eggs in meat
Age of animals i.e. very young and old animals produce poor quality
Poor animal breed that may produce poor quality meat
Chemical poisoning of meat by drugs administered shortly before slaughter
Harsh treatment of the animal before slaughter through beating

Hides and skins

Uses of hide and skins

Used in the leather tanning industry for making shoes, belts, bags etc.
Source of government revenue when the government taxes the products.
Making musical equipment e.g. drums
Decorations in cultural centers
Used as clothing for traditional ceremonies.
Sources of food in some communities e.g. the karamajong

Preparation of hides and skins

Flaying is a method of slow and painful torture and /or execution in which skin is removed from the body
Washing: this is done in running water to remove dung, dirt and blood
Draining: the hides and skins are hanged over poles to remove water and some blood after washing
Fleshing: this involves the removal of fat and meat from the hide using a knife or scrapper
Drying
Trimming: here, odd flaps at the edge of the hide / skin are removal with an aim of making a regular in shape.
Curing Preserving: this can be done by wet/dry salting or hanging them in frames using ropes to dry.
Tanning: this is the process of soaking hides and skins in chemicals such as tannic acid to soften and turn them into leather.

Sources of damage to hides and skins

(a) Damages to hides during the animal’s life:

Injuries / wounds that may be caused by rough handling and sharp objects such as barbed wire.
Some parasites like ticks can cause wounds which will eventually lower the quality of the hide or skin
Diseases like ringworms in cattle and goats can also damage their skins by causing open wounds
Bad branding more especially at the thigh and back will lower the quality of hides and skins
Bad roping can cause calluses and wounds which will eventually lower the quality of hides and skins

(b) Damages to hides during slaughter

Incomplete bleeding which causes blood to remain in a hide or skin attracting microbes that may lead to putrefaction.
Dragging carcass on the floor or over sharp objects can damage the hide

(c) Damages to hides during Flaying

Delay in flaying after killing the animal will make the whole process more difficult hence prone to more mistakes during flaying
Use of pointed knives which may accidentally make holes in the hide/skin.
Mixing the hide with dung or blood during the process of flaying the carcass attracting microbe that speed up putrefaction.
Failure to wash and dry the skin immediately after flaying can encourage rapid decomposition hence reduction in quality.
The fresh skin should not be folded with the hair inside as these create anaerobic conditions that speeds up putrefaction.
An even removal of flesh from the hide causes distortion and damage of the pattern during flaying.

(d) Damages to hides during drying of the skin on the ground can cause the following

Causes flaking due to over drying since temperatures are high on the ground
The fat on the skin/hide will melt and spread all over increasing chances of microbial attack.
Rain drops can collect on the hide/skin which may easily encourage decomposition and hence loss in quality
The outside of the hide/skin is hard while the inside is soft i.e. there is uneven drying
There is putrefaction of the hide/skin more especially in spots which touch the ground

(e) Damage to the hides during transportation

Bad packing causes the hide/skin to rub against each other which may lead to damage
During transportation, rain can soak the hides/skin encouraging microbial action on them

(f) Damage to the hides during storage

Pests like the rodents and insects can attack the hides while in store more especially if stored in poor houses
Moisture from leaking stores can soak the hide/skins thus speeding up decomposition

Please leave any comment

Thanks

Dr. Bbosa Science

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